The Australasian Antarctic Expedition took place between 1911–1914 and was led by Sir Douglas Mawson. It concentrated on the stretch of Antarctic coastline between Cape Adare and Mount Gauss, carrying out mapping and survey work on coastal and inland territories. Scotland and the Antarctic, Section 5: The Voyage of the Scotia". Glasgow Digital Library. Archived from the original on 1 March 2012 . Retrieved 23 September 2008. Dalrymple, Alexander. (1771). A Collection of Voyages Made to the Ocean Between Cape Horn and Cape of Good Hope. Two volumes. London.

The First German Antarctic Expedition was sent to investigate eastern Antarctica in 1901. It discovered the coast of Kaiser Wilhelm II Land, and Mount Gauss. The expedition's ship became trapped in ice, however, which prevented more extensive exploration. [62] [63] [64] The obsession of the undiscovered continent culminated in the brain of Alexander Dalrymple, the brilliant and erratic hydrographer who was nominated by the Royal Society to command the Transit of Venus expedition to Tahiti in 1769. The command of the expedition was given by the admiralty to Captain James Cook. Sailing in 1772 with the Resolution, a vessel of 462 tons under his own command and the Adventure of 336 tons under Captain Tobias Furneaux, Cook first searched in vain for Bouvet Island, then sailed for 20 degrees of longitude to the westward in latitude 58°S, and then 30° eastward for the most part south of 60°S, a higher southern latitude than had ever been voluntarily entered before by any vessel. On 17 January 1773 the Antarctic Circle was crossed for the first time in history and the two ships reached 67° 15' S by 39° 35' E, where their course was stopped by ice. [8] Robert Clancy, John Manning, Henk Brolsma: Mapping Antarctica: A Five Hundred Year Record of Discovery. Springer, 2014. ISBN 978-94-007-4320-5 [Print]; ISBN 978-94-007-4321-2 [eBook] Scott and his four companions reached the South Pole via the Beardmore route on 17 January 1912, 33 days after Amundsen. All five died on the return journey from the Pole, through a combination of starvation and cold. [75] The Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station was later named after these two men.

Marler, Regina (2005). "Ice Queen". Advocate (952): 77. Archived from the original on 30 June 2023 . Retrieved 29 August 2016– via EBSCOhost. Ranter, Harro. "ASN Aircraft accident McDonnell Douglas DC-10-30 ZK-NZP Mount Erebus". aviation-safety.net. Aviation Safety Network. Archived from the original on 2019-04-24 . Retrieved 2020-10-26. Antarctica and international law: a collection of inter-state and national documents, Volume 2. pp. 143. Author: W. M. Bush. Editor: Oceana Publications, 1982. ISBN 0-379-20321-9, ISBN 978-0-379-20321-9 The Swedish Antarctic Expedition, operating at the same time worked in the east coastal area of Graham Land, and was marooned on Snow Hill Island and Paulet Island in the Weddell Sea, after the sinking of its expedition ship. It was rescued by the Argentinian naval vessel Uruguay. [65] [66] [67] Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (España) (1987). Comunicaciones presentadas en el Primer Symposium Español de Estudios Antárticos: celebrado en Palma de Mallorca del 30 de junio al 4 de julio de 1985 (in Spanish). CSIC Press. ISBN 978-84-00-06530-0. Archived from the original on 2023-06-30 . Retrieved 2020-11-01.

Antarctic Explorers– Adrien de Gerlache". South-pole.com. Archived from the original on 5 March 2012 . Retrieved 22 September 2008. The United States became politically interested in the Antarctic continent before and during WWII. The United States Antarctic Service Expedition, from 1939 to 1941, was sponsored by the government with additional support came from donations and gifts by private citizens, corporations and institutions. The objectives of the Expedition, outlined by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, was to establish two bases: East Base, in the vicinity of Charcot Island, and West Base, in the vicinity of King Edward VII Land. After operating successfully for two years, but with international tensions on the rise, it was considered wise to evacuate the two bases. [108] In 1943, British personnel from HMS Carnarvon Castle [106] removed Argentine flags from Deception Island. The expedition was led by Lieutenant James Marr and left the Falkland Islands in two ships, HMS William Scoresby (a minesweeping trawler) and Fitzroy, on Saturday 29 January 1944. Anderson, A (2021). "On the improbability of pre-European Polynesian voyages to Antarctica: a response to Priscilla Wehi and colleagues". Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand. 52 (5): 599–605. doi: 10.1080/03036758.2021.1973517. S2CID 239089356. Archived from the original on 2021-10-17 . Retrieved 2021-12-26.The rounding of the Cape of Good Hope and Cape Horn in the 15th and 16th centuries proved that Terra Australis Incognita ("Unknown Southern Land"), if it existed, was a continent in its own right. In 1773, James Cook and his crew crossed the Antarctic Circle for the first time. Although he discovered new islands, he did not sight the continent itself. It is believed that he came as close as 240 km (150 mi) from the mainland. Amundsen succeeded in reaching the Pole on 14 December 1911 using a route from the Bay of Whales to the polar plateau via the Axel Heiberg Glacier. [72] [73] [74] Scientist Missing from Byrd Station Presumed Dead". Bulletin of the United States Antarctic Projects Office. U.S. Antarctic Projects Office. 6 (6): 2. April 1965. Archived from the original on 30 June 2023 . Retrieved 13 December 2020. The first documented landing on the mainland of East Antarctica was at Victoria Land by the American sealer Mercator Cooper on 26 January 1853. [34] De la Hoz transferred the title to the conqueror Pedro de Valdivia in 1540. [86] In 1555 the claim was incorporated to Chile. [87]

Governments mandated many early expeditions—whether ostensibly economic, scientific, or exploratory in character—to make territorial claims. With the International Geophysical Year (IGY) in 1957–58, the present scale of scientific investigation of Antarctica began, and on December 1, 1959, the twelve countries that were active in Antarctica during the IGY signed the Antarctic Treaty. This treaty, which was an unprecedented landmark in diplomacy, preserves the continent for nonmilitary scientific pursuits and placed Antarctica under an international regime that, for the treaty’s duration, holds all territorial claims in place. The treaty bound its members indefinitely, with a review of its provisions possible after 30 years. A subsequent treaty, called the Madrid Protocol (adopted in 1991), prohibited mining, required environmental impact assessments for new activities, and designated the continent as a natural reserve.

IceCube Collaboration (2013). "Evidence for High-Energy Extraterrestrial Neutrinos at the IceCube Detector". Science. 342 (6161): 1242856. arXiv: 1311.5238. Bibcode: 2013Sci...342E...1I. doi: 10.1126/science.1242856. PMID 24264993. S2CID 27788533.